India and Pakistan: How treaties prevent the rivalry from devolving into war

As tensions between India and Pakistan peaked during Pulwama crisis in February, the two nuclear-armed power managed to retreat from the brink of war. Aakriti Tandon (Daemen College) and Michael O. Slobodchikoff (Troy University) explain how the emergence of a cooperative rivalry through the use of treaties could function as a way to help the two countries deescalate conflicts and avoid war.

India and Pakistan have been a hot topic in the media as well as in policy circles since the February 14, 2019 terror attack in Pulwama, Kashmir that led to the death of 44 Indian paramilitary soldiers. India blamed Pakistan for providing funding, training, arms, resources and a safe haven to Jaish-e-Mohammed, the terrorist group that claimed responsibility for the attack. India launched airstrikes on a militant training camp in Balakot, located in the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa on February 29. Pakistan retaliated with airstrikes against Indian military installments in Kashmir, downing an Indian fighter jet and capturing the pilot. This is the first time that either side has aerially crossed into the territory of the other since the 1971 war that resulted in the liberation of Bangladesh. While both sides continue to be involved in numerous militarised disputes near the Line of Control (LoC) in the disputed territory of Kashmir, the launch of airstrikes constituted major escalation between the nuclear-armed neighbors. While the airstrikes were a major escalation, the conflict did not escalate into war between the states as has often happened in the past. In fact, in an unexpected move, Pakistan decided to return the captured Indian pilot to India, leading to rapid de-escalation of tensions between the rivals. Pakistan’s actions provided an avenue for the two states to de-escalate the crisis and return to the status quo.

Why nuclear weapons don’t explain de-escalation

Pakistan’s active pursuit of de-escalation vis-à-vis India can be attributed to several factors including the deterrence effects of nuclear weapons possessed by both states, a weak Pakistani economy that could collapse under the strain of war with India, pressure from external actors such as the United States, the UN and others as well as the timing of domestic electoral politics in India. While these arguments are crucial in understanding the Indo-Pakistan rivalry, they do not discuss the impact of institutions on the onset as well as recurrence of conflict. The existing network of bilateral treaties may be a means for the two states to manage their conflict. This argument explains the current de-escalation pursued by India and Pakistan at different points in the rivalry, which has prevented the breakout of war since the 1999 Kargil conflict.

Treaty network analysis

Treaty network analysis allows scholars the opportunity to not only identify how the treaties interact to create a regional order, but also to identify specific lodestone treaties, which serve as the foundation for all of the other treaties within the relationship. Treaty networks can also help illuminate the strength of a bilateral relationship and the likelihood that the relationship between two states would devolve into violent conflict – states with a high levels of treaty nesting are less likely to fight wars against each other.

Treaty nesting is a diplomatic technique that states use to tie treaties to previous treaties, thus strengthening cooperation between states. Since violating a treaty that is tied to other treaties is paramount to violating all treaties that are tied together, using treaty nesting as a diplomatic tool is an effective way in which to build cooperation even among traditional rivals. 

India and Pakistan have signed a total of 44 bilateral treaties between 1947 and 2017.. Treaty A is considered to be nested under Treaty B (or have a tie with it) if it explicitly makes a reference to the earlier treaty within its text. A relationship is considered to have institutionalised cooperation when the total number of ties in the relationship is equal to or greater than the total number of bilateral treaties between the two states. It is considered to have ad-hoc cooperation when the total number of ties is less than the total number of bilateral treaties between the two states. Thus, by dividing the number of treaty ties by the number of treaties, one can determine the level of institutionalised cooperation within the dyads.   

Beginning in the 1980s, India and Pakistan have been attempting to link new treaties to existing bilateral or multilateral arrangements thereby creating a dense network of ties. States that violate a nested treaty are not only violating a single treaty, but all other treaties that are linked to it. By nesting treaties, states increase the costs of violating a single treaty, thereby reducing the probability of treaty violation. By enhancing the probability of cooperation, treaty nestedness is likely to build trust in a bilateral relationship. While India and Pakistan are enduring rivals, they also continue to abide by many of the treaties they have signed.  In the figure below, we show how these treaties are tied together.  Each treaty is a square in the figure, and the size of the square indicates the importance of the treaty to the relationship.

Figure 1: Indo-Pak Treaty Network Map 1960-2017

           

Using cooperation scores below  Table 1, we can see that the India-Pakistan cooperation score is 0.4 in 1970 and jumps to 0.96 in 1980. The score hovers at the 0.88 level for a few years before climbing again in 2010 and crossing the threshold of 1 in 2011. Thus, we see a significant shift in the overall levels of treaty making and nesting between India and Pakistan in the 1970s. In 1971, India’s support for the East Pakistan’s quest for independence led to India and Pakistan fighting a war. India’s support for the successful Bangladeshi liberation movement soured diplomatic ties between the two neighbors. After the end of the war, the two countries created a series of treaties to address bilateral relations, including the landmark Simla Agreement of 1972. The two countries also signed treaties for the resumption of trade, reset visa requirements, as well as resume telegraph and postal exchanges. As India and Pakistan attempted to restore diplomatic and functional ties in the aftermath of the second war between them, they created a number of nested treaties. While the network of treaties has not reduced or eliminated cross border violence between India and Pakistan, it does demonstrate the ability of states to find pockets of cooperation that can eventually spill over into other issue areas, thereby enhancing mutual cooperation. For instance, even as the cross-border conflict unfolded, India and Pakistani diplomats were holding joint discussions to provide Indian pilgrims access to the Kartarpur Sikh shrine located inside Pakistan.

Table 1: Cooperation Scores in the Indo-Pakistan dyad*

Year	India-Pakistan Cooperation Score
1950	0
1960	0.4
1970	0.4
1980	0.96
1990	0.87
2000	0.88
2010	0.94
2011	1.02
2017	1.02

India and Pakistan are currently in a transitory phase between ad-hoc (weak) cooperation and institutionalised (strong) cooperation. They barely cross the threshold of 1 in 2011, suggesting they are on the cusp of becoming ‘cooperating rivals’ i.e they are enduring rivals who have institutionalised cooperation to the point of developing conflict management capabilities that prevent the recurrence of violent conflict.

Cooperative rivalry

 While the number of ceasefire violations (CFVs) between India and Pakistan has risen dramatically over the past few years, these heightened tensions have not escalated to a full-blown war between the nuclear-armed neighbors. The increased levels of cooperation through treaties and the use of treaty nesting in the Indo-Pakistani relationship may be serving a conflict management function by preventing CFV’s from escalating into violent militarised conflict.

An analysis of India- Pakistan treaties suggests that the two states are on the cusp of strengthened cooperation and are transitioning from a more traditional rivalry in which the states have often fought several wars to more of a “cooperative rivalry” in which the rival states create a high enough level of cooperation that enables them to resolve disputes before they escalate into war. Given that both India and Pakistan are nuclear powers, it is extremely important that India and Pakistan continue to tie future cooperation efforts to prior successful treaties to avoid potential disputes escalating into militarised conflict.

Should India and Pakistan continue to cooperate through treaties in areas that mutually benefit both states and tie those treaties to prior treaties, then it is likely that India and Pakistan will be able to effectively manage their rivalry and prevent the rivalry from devolving into war.  However a failure to do so may result in the return of traditional rivalry in which war is a distinct possibility.

This article originally appeared on the London School of Economics' South Asia blog://blogs.lse.ac.uk/southasia/2019/06/10/india-and-pakistan-how-treaties-prevent-the-rivalry-from-devolving-into-war/

Women's History Month -- 2019!

The Women's Studies Program at Daemen is proud to announce this year's Women's History Month roster of events, including lectures, films, a poetry reading, and a meet-and-greet poster-making session.

(Scroll down to the Women's History Month poster for full details about each event.)

 

"Liberty" (Frances F. Noyes) presides over this March 31, 1913, suffrage parade in Washington, D.C., as women sought the right to vote. (National Archives)

Lectures: The History and Political Science Department is sponsoring two lectures as part of its History & Politics Event Series:

• On March 25 (7pm, RIC120), Dr. Alexis Henshaw will speak on "Insurgent Women: Female Combatants in Civil Wars." Dr. Henshaw is a political scientist specializing in international women's issues. She is a professor as well as United Nation consultant. Henshaw's lecture will draw upon her recent book, Insurgent Women, to explore women's involvement in war and peace efforts in several regions: Ukraine, Kurdish groups in the Middle East, and the civil war in Columbia. (For more information, see the event flier or our Facebook event page)

• On March 20 (7pm, Wick Social Room), Dr. Karolina Krasuska will present a lecture on "Women and the Holocaust." Dr. Krasuska, an Assistant Professor at the University of Warsaw, Poland, is an expert on transnational modernism, gender, queer identity, and Jewishness. In fall 2017, Krasuska taught a class on 20th century European history at Daemen during her visit as part of the faculty exchange program between Daemen and the University of Warsaw's American Studies Center.  Her lecture will draw upon her recent coedited collection, Women and the Holocaust: New Perspectives and Challenges. Dr. Krasuska's lecture is co-sponsored by the Center for Polish Studies.
  

Films: 

• On March 6 (7pm, Wick Alumni Lounge), the History & Political Science Department is screening the classic 1959 French film, Hiroshima Mon Amour, timed to coincide with the 60th anniversary of the film's release. Dr. Kevin Telford (Associate Professor of French, Modern Languages Department) will comment and lead a discussion after the movie. 
• On March 27 (7pm, RIC120), the AAUW Student Organization will air the 2016 (remake) of the movie, Ghostbusters, in which paranormal investigators try to prove that ghosts are real. Students will discuss the film through a feminist lens, focusing on the significance of the all-female cast and reframed story.  
• on March 28 (4pm, DS336), Dr. Shannon Lupien and other members of the Psychological Sciences Department will present The Tale as part of the Daemen Film Series. The Tale explores the aftermath of the sexual assault of a child--from the perspective of the adult survivor of sexual assault who is coming to terms with what happened to her as a child and who needs to understand the stories she told herself to survive her experiences.  

Poetry Reading:

• On March 20 (7pm, 3rd floor RIC), the Readings at the RIC poetry series features two female poets from Buffalo: Rachelle Toarmino and Theresa Wyatt

AAUW: Sign-design & Interest Meeting:

• On March 7 (7pm, RIC Den), members of the AAUW Student Organization will come together to make signs and socialize before the 2019 Buffalo Women's March (scheduled for Sunday, March 10). The club promotes gender equality and action in behalf of women's education and gender pay equity. Make a sign, plan for the March, and learn more about the AAUW and its members. 
  

Upcoming events: Visit this page for updates on April's events:

• Dr. Laura Watts, Associate Professor of Art History (Visual and Performing Arts Department) -- will lecture on images of the matria in 19th century Italian paintings (Time/location TBA)

• On April 17 (Academic Festival) the AAUW Student Organization is holding a World Hijab Day Acknowledgement event--and henna booth. Learn about cultural traditions associated with wearing hijab--why do women wear them, and what do they represent? The club will also sponsor a henna booth. Get a henna tattoo and learn about the cultural significance of henna body ornamentation in different cultures. The event is scheduled to run for several hours, but most visitors will want to stay for 15 to 30 minutes so you can stop by between other events at Academic Festival. (schedule will be posted here)

Read more about this year's Women's History Month events in this story from The Daemen Voice and by visiting the History & Political Science Department's Facebook page.

Questions? Contact Dr. Penny Messinger, Associate Professor of History and Director of Daemen's Women's Studies Program.

Insurgent Women: Female Combatants in Civil Wars

              Annual Model UN Simulation

  On Wednesday, April 18^th 2018, students from PSC 121: International Relations participated in a Model UN Simulation as part of Daemen's annual Academic Festival. Students represented various states in meeting of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC)  held to discuss the ongoing territorial disputes in the South China Sea and vote on the proposed resolution. The countries involved in this simulation were Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, as well as the permanent members of the UNSC (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom(UK), and the United States of America (US)).

 Each country gave a short speech introducing their positions on the issue. The states that had the most to say were China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. China reinforced their claims to the nine-dash line and claimed that the water was “historically” their property noting that several other nations recognized the nine-dash line as valid. Indonesia was the main opponent to China, in that they were disputing the validity of the nine-dash-line as well as China’s claims to the entire region; they were of course backed by the United States as well as the United Kingdom. Indonesia strongly disagreed with China’s “historical” claims to the water, and asserted their rights and sovereignty over the waters in their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The Philippines delivered a powerful speech as well about negotiating and signing a bilateral treaty with China, and they encouraged other countries (Malaysia, Indonesia, and Japan) to do so as well. The Philippines and China both claimed that their treaty was mutually beneficial, with joint security guarantees from both countries. 

After all the countries delivered their positions on the territorial disputes in the South China Sea, the moderators conducted an open debate; the question that generated the most controversy was “Do any countries have the claim or desire to expand their territory in the South China Sea?”. The Philippines found this question particularly offensive as did China, this resulted in strained arguments among the states creating a tensed and chaotic atmosphere. Another point of note was that China claimed that the nine-dash line and the Law of the Sea were not mutually exclusive agreements and said that they were willing to create treaties with any country that approached them. 

 At the end of the debate the resolution was introduced and each state cast their vote: only two of the eight states voted for the resolution (Indonesia and Russia), one state abstained from the vote (Japan), the rest of the states adamantly voted against the resolution. No amendments were added to the resolution at any point. The moderator and the USG worked hard to synthesize all position papers and create a balanced resolution that would be appealing to all states involved. The main points of the resolution were as follows:

1.   Demands, that any and all nations halt military or other  aggressions towards one another in a timely fashion, this includes intervention by the USA, UK, France and Russia.

2.    Endorses the renaming of the area known as the South China Sea, that it gives the false impression that China is entitled to the area. 

3. Encourages all states to immediately halt their all activities in the area, and acknowledge what they have and what all countries already have. It is also advisable that no state continues with their intentions to build any other islands and enact efforts to preserve the remaining wildlife reefs.

4.     Encourages  a spirit of cooperation between all states with stake in the sea, as laid out in United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Treaty,  to sign a treaty acknowledging each other state's claim to the area as well as indicating they will allow  free and open trade in the area.

5.   Demands, China to denounces the nine-dash line, in exchange they may keep the islands created and  claim the law of the sea from those areas (200 miles off the coast).

6.  Proposes, that any and all nations that lay similar claims to Similar Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) under the UNCLOS Treaty work out additional treaties with each other that are both fair and righteous to both states.

7.     Advocate Support for these treaties, if needed, to be supervised and overseen by a third party (state, NGO, or IGO) with no direct benefit from either state control of more of the EEZ then the other.

8.    Proposes treaty designed to allow shared fishing territories and resources throughout the region, if so desired by state, with predetermined compensation.

Representative from France presenting their position

Speech by the representative of Indonesia

Speech from the representative of Malaysia

Moderator introducing the simulation

Team representing the Phillippines

Speech by Russia

Debate

Debate

Speech by US representative

  Students were particularly excited at having the opportunity to engage in experiential learning. They conducted several weeks of in-depth research on their assigned states and roles before the showcase. While all teams performed enthusiastically, students in the class voted to award the best performance to Team China and Team France/ UK for their outstanding knowledge and performance. A special mention to the Philippines and Indonesia who also received several votes and were runners-up for the best performance award.

Blog post by Kaitlin Kinkade (Served as Moderator in the Model UN Simulation) and Dr. Aakriti Tandon

The History and Political Science Department will once again sponsor the Model UN Simulation to be held during Daemen's Annual Academic Festival. This year we are exploring the territorial disputes and conflict in the South China Sea. Students representing various countries will debate solutions to the territorial disputes in the South China Sea in a simulated session of the United Nations Security Council. Students in PSC 121 - International Relations will be participating in the simulation along with members of Daemen's new Model UN Student Club.  If you are interested in participating, please contact Dr. Aakriti Tandon at atandon@daemen.edu.

Alumni profile: Christina Auguste

Christina Auguste at Niagara Falls

Guest blog post by Christina Auguste
 

I'm Christina Auguste and I recently graduated from Daemen College's Political Science program. I had several minors: Black Studies, Global Studies, and Religion and Philosophy. In my final year at Daemen I completed an internship at the International Institute of Buffalo in their Regugee Resettlement Department, as well as writing my senior thesis, entitled "Economic Recovery and the Rwandan Genocide." It wasn't all easy, but with a healthy amount of complaining (on my part) and guidance from my instructors I was able to get it all done. 

 

Auguste with Daemen President Gary A. Olson, receiving the Canavan Award

On the eve of graduation I was awarded the Mary Angela Canavan Award. [note: The Mary Angela Canavan Award is a prestigious award recognizing a graduating senior who has made significant contributions to the improvement of student life at the college.] The Canavan Award recognized my work in creating a program to increase diversity amongst the Orientation Leader staff. Even though this project wasn't related to my coursework, I received help and support from the History & Political Science Department faculty from conception to implementation. All the professors shared my passion for the project, which made me feel like I had a team behind me. 

My advisor, Dr. Aakriti Tandon, guided me through my senior year, particularly when I was applying to graduate programs. Thanks to her, to the department, and to my peers, I currently attend New York University's School of Professional Studies (SPS). I've joined their Masters of Science in Global Affairs Program. It's a new life at NYU and a little daunting at times but I know I can always call my favorite professor, Dr. Jay Wendland, to complain, and to get words of encouragement. 

Christina poses with Dr. Jay Wendland, Assistant Professor of Political Science, after commencement.

Model UN Club participates in the UB MUN Conference

Daemen College's newly formed Model UN Club participated in the annual Model UN Conference held on March 21, 2017 at the University at Buffalo, organized by the International Institute at Buffalo. The club members volunteered as either a judge or a rapporteur for the high school conference. The Club President, Amatullah Wright, thinks this was an amazing experience for the club. The Club hopes to participate in other Model UN Conferences, and they also aim to host a conference at Daemen College. Dr. Aakriti Tandon, Assitant Professor of Political Science at Daemen College, will serve as the faculty advisor for the student club. The club welcomes new members to join and try out something new.

Event participants included:

Alex Forrester (Junior, Marketing)

Amatullah Wright (Freshman, Physical Therapy)

Hashim Hill (Freshman, Biology) 

Idania Ramierez (Junior, Political Science)

Shenell Hippolyte (Freshman, English Communications)

Tysai Washington (Freshman, Undeclared)

The newly formed Daemen College Model UN club at the University at Buffalo high-school conference. (From left to right) Tysai Washington, Alex Forrester, Shenell Hippolyte, Amatullah Wright, Hashim Hill, and Idania Ramierez.

Dr. Farida Jalalzai Discusses The Global Dimensions of Women's Executive Leadership

Model UN at Academic Festival: Guest Blogger Brianna Zichettella

Model UN at the 2016 Academic Festival 

As the most powerful body of the United Nations, the Security Council is dedicated to maintaining peace and security on a global level. At this year’s Academic Festival, to help bridge the gap between theory and application, Daemen students participated in the History and Political Science Department’s annual Model United Nations simulation. This year’s resolution focused on the ongoing peace talks to end the 5 year old Syrian Civil War. The simulation was sponsored by Dr. Aakriti Tandon, Assistant Professor of Political Science at Daemen College. Students from PSC 121: International Relations class represented countries including China, France, Germany, Iraq, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Students from PSC 231: Global Governance class represented relevant non-state actors including NGOs, the Free Syrian Army as well as UN Under Secretary Generals (USGs) and debate moderators.

Under Secretary Generals and Moderators: Nigel Haynes, Christine Kozlowski, Shane Clark, Christina Auguste, Jessica Maulucci and Brianna Zichetella (blog author) 

As Syria enters its fifth year of civil war, all sides in the conflict must consider the benefits of peace negotiations. This protracted conflict has destabilized the region and resulted in displacement and death for the people of Syria. With both sides accused of committing war crimes and the inability of humanitarian aid workers to reach those in need, it is in most parties’ best interests to end the violence and suffering in and around Syria. However, this is an extremely complicated matter, and any effective solution should involve the cooperation of all nations in an effort to promote global peace and stability. Problems of this magnitude are generally addressed at the highest level of diplomacy: the United Nations Security Council.

Delegates from the U.K. and France: Jonathan Miranda, Michael Reilly, Casey Young, Amanda Best, and Andriy Lukomsky

Delegates from Iraq: Kelsey Gibson, Isabella Orgento-Romero, and Luis Ortiz

      To prepare for the simulation, students conducted extensive research on their assigned countries. As representatives, students were expected to give introductory speeches and argue the positions of their states in the debate segment of the simulation. This includes researching the historical and contemporary situation of their country’s stance on the issue and reading relevant UN Security Council resolutions. Due to the nature of the debate, participating students must be able to accurately predict the kinds of responses that representatives of their states would give to debate questions and how their state would rebut other country’s responses.

Moderators: Christina Auguste, Jessica Maulucci and Brianna Zichettella 

Delegates from Germany,  and Turkey: Kyle Munro, Natalie Ennis, Idania Ramirez, Jasmine Favors

During the simulation, students debated several topics including humanitarian relief, the continuing presidency of Bashar Al-Assad, housing refugees, the state’s visions for peace in the event the conflict is resolved, and potential consequences for both sides’ human rights violations. A particularly contentious question asked representatives how they felt about bringing the Kurds to the discussion table: The Islamic State is a threat to all sides in this conflict. Thus far, only the Kurds have had any success in stopping the terrorist group’s progress. Would you consider including the Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG) in this discussion in exchange for help against this threat?

            Responses to this question were extremely varied. One of the potential demands that the Kurds may make in exchange for their help is the official transfer to Kurdish ownership of the land they currently occupy. The area with prominent Kurdish presence – known as Kurdistan – covers areas of Iraq Iran, Turkey, and Syria. In the debate, countries like Turkey that would lose territory were strongly opposed to this option. However, countries farther removed for the area, such as the United States, seemed to believe it would be a fair trade-off for help.

Delegates from Oxfam (NGO): Ramel Haines, Torrence Dyck, Fati Haruna

The Syrian Delegation: Hannah Gerber, Jenil Bell, and Carlos McKnight

        After extensive and occasionally heated debate, the country representatives passed the USG’s proposed resolution with a vote of eight affirmations to three abstentions. The resulting resolution invites Syrian Kurds to future peace talks, excludes Syrian President Bashar al-Assad from future peace talks, reaffirms the need for monitoring of human rights violations, and proposed the creation of an Intergovernmental Organization tasked with ensuring the permanence of post-war state building in Syria and wherever war is resolved. The resolution also met the Council’s primary goal of securing safe travel for Non-Governmental Organizations and other humanitarian aid workers within the region.

Delegates from Saudia Arabia: Jossette Allwood and Ebony Fripp

Free Syrian Army: Breanna Coolidge and Gabriela Andrade

     Overall the simulation allowed students from all majors to experience real-world application of political science to current events. It was an interesting and engaging experience, and the participating students look forward to next year’s simulation.

The Russian Delegation: Imani Evans, Paige Casey and Natalie Chiodo

United States: Mathew Molnar, Zahra Nayyeri and Rachel Lewandowski

Roundtable Discussion of Russia's War on Terror

On Monday, November 16, Dr. Michael Slobodchikoff and Dr. Tomasz Pudlocki led a roundtable discussion on Russia’s War on Terror, as part of the History and Political Science Speaker Series.  The event was well attended, as Drs. Slobodchikoff and Pudlocki spoke to over 100 people in the audience. 

Dr. Slobodchikoff spoke about Syria’s civil war and how ISIL factors into the problems in Syria, as it is the major opposition faction in Syria.  He also spoke about Russia’s interests in Syria as well as the surrounding Middle Eastern region.  These interests include preventing extremism and terrorism from spreading to Russia, protecting long-time allies, protecting military bases, protecting business interests, among many others. 

Dr. Slobodchikoff also spoke about recent terrorist activity.  Russian Flight 9268 crashed en route to St. Petersburg, Russia from Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt.  ISIL took credit for the crash, which Russia responded to by cancelling all flights to and from Egypt.  He also spoke about the recent attacks on Paris, France.  ISIL has also claimed credit for the bombings and death of over 100 people in these attacks. 

Dr. Pudlocki spoke about the Syrian crisis from the perspective of Central Europe.  He discussed the current refugee crisis as a result of the Syrian civil war, economic downturn, and terrorist activity.  He commented on how central Europe has been responding to the influx of refugees and the struggles faced by these refugees fleeing terror in their home countries. 

The Department of History and Political Science would like to thank Dr. Slobodchikoff and Dr. Pudlocki for an engaging roundtable on this very relevant topic.  We also thank the Division of Arts and Sciences for co-sponsoring the event.  

For more information on this roundtable discussion, you can see press coverage of the event at the links provided below.  The History and Political Science Department was happy to see some of our students featured in the reports!  

WKBW (Channel 7 News)

WBFO (Buffalo's NPR News Station)